Glossary of Organic Chemistry Terms

This is an organic chemistry glossary. Look up definitions of common and important organic chemistry terms. absolute alcohol absolute error absolute temperature absolute uncertainty absorbance absorption absorption spectroscopy absorption spectrum absorptivity accuracy acetal acid acid anhydride acid-base indicator acid-base titration acid dissociation constant - Ka acidic solution activated complex activation energy - Ea activity series actual yield acute health effect acyl group adsorption alcohol aliphatic amino acid aliphatic compound aliphatic hydrocarbon alkali metal alkaline alkalinity alkene alkenyl group alkoxide alkoxy group allotrope alloy alpha decay alpha radiation amide amine amino acid amorphous amphoteric oxide amu angular momentum quantum number anion anhydrous anode antibonding orbital anti-Markovnikov addition anti-periplanar aqueous aqueous solution aromatic compound Arrhenius acid Arrhenius base aryl atom atomic mass atomic mass unit (amu) atomic number atomic radius atomic weight Avogadros Law Avogadros number azeotrope azimuthal quantum number

Malcolm Gladwells The Tipping Point - 1113 Words

Amber Anderson Joel Williams ENC1101/LEC/07 10/25/2017 Close Reading Malcolm Gladwell’s â€Å"The Tipping Point† is radical because he talks about how the environment can change people behavior. The environment could have caused people to change for better or worst. For example: When people were placed in an environment of filth they are more violent and hectic causing the crime rate to increase. When you come from a bad neighborhood you are statistically more likely to be dangerous and belligerent. If you were to place people into a different environment, you can expect change (not saying it always work). Throughout the story Malcolm gives many examples of change. He starts off by talking about four young men who were on a New York train.†¦show more content†¦The change came from simply fixing the trains, not from wanting to change but from cleaning up the environment. Showing that they are more than what they see. Clean makes you feel better about yourself as for dirty makes you feel scum like. So why not act how you feel? It is events like what I stated above that helped the people to see that change can be just as simple as cleaning the train. Being in an environment filled with filth, stench, and nothingness in the air, can lead you to doing bad things. In the story four men were acting like they had something and when approached a man were then shot. If you dig deeper, you truly find out the four young men didn’t have an easy life. They came from a horrible place. Somewhere less fortunate than they needed to be. That key setting caused them to react and see things more angrily and act out as such. Malcolm Gladwell writes: The encounter between Bernie Goetz and those four youths on the subway: Allen, Ramseur, Cabey, and Canty. At least two of them, according to some reports, appear to have been on drugs at the time of the incident. They all came from the Claremont Village housing project in one of the worst parts of the South Bronx. Cabey was, at the time, under indictment for armed robbery. Canty had a prior felony for possession of stolen property. Allen had been previously arrested for attempted assault.Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of The Tipping Point1047 Words   |  5 PagesThe Tipping Point Society is stocked full of various trends and epidemics. To many, the way in which these trends start is a mystery. As members of a society, we often subconsciously take part in these patterns without questioning our participation. Therefore, people continue to ignore the drastic changes in society, and the reasons why they occur so swiftly. There is a lack of motivation to take a step back and inquire about society as a whole, and rethink one’s actions. In The Tipping Point, MalcolmRead MoreThe Tipping Point: Rhetorical Analysis Essay813 Words   |  4 PagesThe Tipping Point: Rhetorical Analysis Throughout The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell explains to his reader his ideas about drastic changes in society, and how they seem to occur so rapidly. In this particular selection, Gladwell emphasizes the purpose of â€Å"connectors†, saying that they have a â€Å"special gift for bringing the world together (page 38)†. Gladwell states that part of the reason information or trends spread like wildfire is the presence of a specific group of people. They are called â€Å"connecters†Read MoreThe Tipping Point By Malcolm Gladwell1471 Words   |  6 PagesMany phenomena exist within the world; whether it be the butterfly effect, the small world theory, or even the laws of gravity, these entities shape reality. In the book The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell analyzes an effect he coins the â€Å"tipping point†. The â€Å"tipping point† essentially is the point at which small, seemingly insignificant changes become significant enough to cause a large an d often times important change . Throughout the text of this novel, Gladwell explores this notion more in-depth;Read MoreThe Tipping Point By Malcolm Gladwell1558 Words   |  7 Pagespeople’s view around the world about what they like and what is good. In Malcolm Gladwell’s The Tipping Point it breaks downs trends and explain how they work. It starts off with three types of people coming together to get the trend to the public, Connectors, Mavens, and Salesman. In the novel Gladwell goes into great detail about each type of person and describes how and what they attribute to help the trends reach their tipping point. For example, a connector is a person who knows everyone and has connectionsRead MoreIndividuals Are Affected by Their Surrounding Environment1149 Words   |  5 Pages The context of the environment plays a big role on how it influences an individual, or a whole population. Environment influences how people act, think and react to their surrounding environment. Such environment influence is depicted in Malcolm Gladwells â€Å"The Power of Context: Bernie Goetz and the Rise and Fall Of New York City Crime† Gladwell highlights how the environment shapes individuals’ actions in the city of New York. During the 1980s New York City was different than what it is known todayRead MoreIs A Social Epidemic?1199 Words   |  5 Pagesperhaps narcissistic) act of snapping a picture of oneself become a global phenomenon? A more pressing question is, what special characteristics make a person, product, or idea capable of becoming a social epidemic? In his nonfiction work, The Tipping Point, Malcolm Gladwell proposes that there are three rules of epidemics: The Law of the Few, The Stickiness Factor, and The Power of Context. Focusing on the selfie i n particular, two of these three rules can effectively be applied to analyze what is behindRead MoreEssay about Gladwells Tipping Point1513 Words   |  7 PagesMalcolm Gladwells book The Tipping Point offers a fascinating and insightful way to think about the issue of epidemics. Those elements Gladwell believes are the basis for why epidemics start allows the reader to think about their world in a way they never thought they could. I would not have thought of Sesame Street or Blues clues as being defined as epidemics. When one thinks of an epidemic, one thinks of AIDS, or some form of disease so widespread that it must be contained and a cure providedRead MoreThe Tipping Point by Malcolm Gladwell724 Words   |  3 PagesAfter reading The Tipping Point, I have learned many important â€Å"tips† in marketing. Malcolm Gladwell, author of The Tipping Point, identifies three important concepts based on his deep studies throughout his life: â€Å"the Law of the Few†, â⠂¬Å"the Stickiness Factor†, and â€Å"the Power of Context†. These factors play essential roles in deciding if a particular trend will work in widespread popularity. He makes these concepts interesting and understandable. In the opening chapter, Gladwell talks about theRead MoreA Good Story By Malcom Gladwell1257 Words   |  6 PagesMalcom Gladwell’s book tells a good story, but that’s about all it does. While this book is supposed to be researched based, many reviewers believe that he is just telling a good story, whether it is factual or not. It is almost as if Gladwell makes up facts just to have a good story. It is frightening that an author like Gladwell is influencing thousands of people with his book, but most of the information is not correct. When looking at the reviews of Gladwell’s book, there seems to be a patternRead MoreHow Little Things Make a Big Difference2808 Words   |  12 Pagesitself is to reflect the reasons why America displays in today’s society. Literature reflects society by pre-existing concepts and ideas. This is why Malcolm Gladwell writes The Tipping Point in which discusses about events that people make in the past and how past experiences can lead people to make inform decisions very quickly. The Tipping Point changes the way people in America think about selling products and disseminating ideas. According to Gladwell, â€Å"I don’t really think of myself as an outlier

The Social Organization of Singapore Free Essays

My research will be based on Political, Economic, and Social Organization of Singapore—an industrialist city-state. Even though Singapore’s history dates from the 11th century, the island was little known to the West until the 19th century. Singapore is one of the World’s largest ports, because the city of Singapore has become a major port, with trade exceeding that of Malaya’s, Malacca and Penang combined. We will write a custom essay sample on The Social Organization of Singapore or any similar topic only for you Order Now The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the advent of steamships launched an era of prosperity for Singapore as transit trade expanded throughout Southeast Asia (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Singapore is a very multicultural country, but education through social studies has brought the country into a social cohesive unit (Ho, 2009). Singapore is a Republic—a one-house Parliament makes the county’s laws. A prime minister leads a Cabinet, which carries out the operations of the Government. The ruling political party in Singapore, reelected continuously since 1959, is the People’s Action Party (PAP), headed by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong† (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). The president (chief of state) previously exercised only ceremonial duties. As a result of 1991 constitutional changes, the president is now elected and exercises expanded powers over legislative appointments, government budgetary affairs, and internal security matters. The PAP believes that rationalism and expertise is the proper approach to social and economic problems that may arise (Bellows, 1985). The PAP has held the overwhelming majority of seats in Parliament since 1966, when the opposition Barisan Sosialis Party (Socialist Front), a left-wing group that split off from the PAP in 1961, resigned from Parliament, leaving the PAP as the sole representative party† (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). â€Å"Singapore became independent in August 1965, and has had compulsory voting since the late 1950s (every Singaporean 21 years of age or older must vote). Between 1968 and October 1981, in four national parliamentary elections and innumerable by-elections, the PAP won every seat† (Bellows, 1985). The maximum term in Parliament is five years. The president appoints nominated members of Parliament from nominations by a special select committee. Nominated members of Parliament (NMPs) enjoy the same privileges as members of Parliament, but cannot vote on constitutional matters or expenditure of funds (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Members of Parliament serve only two-and-a-half-year terms. As stated above, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the advent of steamships launched an era of prosperity for Singapore as transit trade expanded throughout Southeast Asia (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Also, in the 20th century, the Automobile industry’s need for rubber and the packaging industry’s need for tin assisted Singapore in becoming one of the World’s major ports. Singapore’s location among major sea lanes, and its industrious population, is what gives this small country its economic importance (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). â€Å"Upon independence in 1965, Singapore was faced with a lack of physical resources and a small domestic market. In response, the Singapore Government adopted a pro-business, pro-foreign investment, export-oriented economic policy framework, combined with state-directed investments in strategic government-owned corporations. Singapore’s economic strategy proved a success, producing real growth that averaged 7. 8% from 1965 to 2009† (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). In addition to this economic strategy, the end of the cold war brought about less tension between Asian counties, which brought the region into a more globalizing production process (Heng, 2006, pg. 2). In the 1980’s, Singapore entered into a growth triangle (GT) with Indonesia and Malaysia, also written as IMS-GT. This triangle would prove to be a good move for the three countries, but with free trade agreements (FTAs) and close economic partnerships (CEPs) coming onto the scene, the growth triangles introduced in the 80’s looked as if they may have competition in the economic realm, but GTs continue to be at the tip of the spear due to the cooperation between the three are still very productive for them all. With all three countries being relatively close together, costs are minimal. Not to mention, this export-oriented cooperation is still attractive to foreign trading (Heng, 2006, pg. 1). The pioneering GT in Southeast Asia is that of the IMS-GT, and its evolution is very much tied to the economic development of the Singapore economy (Toh Low, 1993, Kakazu, 1997). There are five GT’s in existence and GT’s are highly regarded by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). There were two major happenings that temporarily effected Singapore’s economy between 2001 and 2003—the worldwide electronics slump and the outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). Both times, growth bounced back, by world demand for electronics, pharmaceuticals, other manufactured goods, and financial services. The return was mostly contributed to by the economies of its major trading partners—the United States, the European Union, Japan, and China, as well as expanding emerging markets such as India (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). The next economic hit that Singapore would have to endure would not take place until 2008-2009. The hit was due to global financial crisis. Singapore had their worst two quarters in late 2008 and early 2009, but would bounce back quickly (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Manufacturing and services are the backbone of Singapore’s economy, producing 26% and 69. 3% of Singapore’s gross domestic product in 2009. Singapore’s manufacturing of electronics accounts for 31. 5%, while chemicals account for 27% of the country’s manufacturing output. The government also approved the development of two casinos in Singapore, in May 2005, to facilitate new life in tourism. The investment produced more than $5 billion U.  S. dollars. Las Vegas Sands’ Marina Bay Sands and Resort opened in April 2010 and Genting International’s Resort World Sentosa opened in February 2010 (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Lee Kuan Yew once said, â€Å"A casino in the city state was possible, only over my dead body. † Now, with the extra income to the economy, he seemed to have warmed up to the casinos. April 27, 2010, the opening of the Las Vegas Sands’ was published in USA Today and quoted as saying, â€Å"Singapore’s second casino-resort opened Tuesday, a massive $5. billion project by Las Vegas Sands Corp. that aims to makeover the city-state as a Southeast Asian gambling and tourism magnet† Singapore is continuing to grow economically as stated by the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, â€Å"The government is actively negotiating eight free trade agreements (FTAs) with emerging economic partners and has already concluded 18 FTAs with many of its key trade partner s, including one with the United States that came into force January 1, 2004. As a member of the Association f Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Singapore is part of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), and is signatory to ASEAN FTAs with China, Korea, Japan, India, and a joint agreement with New Zealand and Australia. Singapore is also a party to the Transpacific Strategic Economic Partnership Agreement, which includes Brunei, Chile, and New Zealand† (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). Singapore was a small society open to influence from the west through the English language and subject to homogenizing effects of modernization and industrialization. Ethnicity was not assured as a fundamental element (Unknown, n. d. ). Singapore, as stated by the Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, is one of the most densely populated countries in the world. The annual population growth rate for 2009 was 3. 1%, including resident foreigners. Singapore has a diversity of linguistic, cultural, and religious backgrounds. Malay being the national language, but Chinese, English, and Tamil are also recognized as official languages. English is utilized in administration, professions, business, and schools (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). English is mandated as the primary language by the Singapore Government to be used at all levels in schools. The government is said to provide at least ten years of education in English for every child (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). I have personally experienced this to be quite true. I have been to Singapore on three different occasions during my Naval career, and there is a surprisingly amount of people in Singapore that speak very good English. Ordering food at a restaurant in Singapore proved to be much easier than expected. Another surprising fact is that the literacy rate in Singapore is 96. 3% (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). A touchy subject in Singapore is the terms race and ethnicity. While 77% of the country’s population is Chinese, all Singaporeans are assigned a â€Å"race† at birth (determined by the father’s race), and this is indicated on an official identification card (Ho, 2009). The Singapore Department of statistics assigns the same meaning to both race and ethnicity and states the term ethnic group refers to a person’s race (Ho, 2009). The Singapore constitution also contains provisions that prohibit discrimination and guarantee protection to minorities, including articles 12, 16, and 152 (Tan, 2004). Singapore has diversity in ethnicity when it comes to religion. Singapore allows freedom of religion for the most part, but religion is subject to government view. Thus, some religions have been banned or restricted. â€Å"Almost all Malays are Muslim; other Singaporeans are Taoists, Buddhists, Confucianists, Christians, Hindus, or Sikhs† (Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2010). The Buddhism is prominently displayed through Buddhist temples throughout Singapore. I actually saw many of these temples in my travels to Singapore. Some of these temples are very extravagant works of art. You may also see the diversity among Singaporeans if you are visiting during National Holidays. The people of Singapore will display their different cultures through dance and cultural clothing all across the country. The Singapore government experienced a loss of cohesiveness due to this multicultural social organization. The Government introduced Social Studies into the educational system in order to bring cohesiveness back into the country. The social studies curriculum was introduced, in 2001, to secondary educational levels—students from fifteen to seventeen years old. It is designed to allow students to grasp an understanding of Singapore’s geopolitical situation, including its strengths and vulnerabilities (Ho, 2009). This curriculum brings to light the differences in this culturally diverse country. This in turn brings the different people of Singapore together, thus encouraging social cohesiveness. Singapore has risen to every challenge that has come her way. Singapore has grown politically, economically, and socially with minimal negative results. Politically, the PAP remains the leader in the government. Realizing the need for economic growth, the PAP has always stood by industrialization. The building of casinos in the city-state has shown a remarkable ability to tap into tourism. Singapore remains at the head of the spear in terms of global trade. The social organization will continue to strengthen with education of youth. This fact has been recognized—education of the next generation will lead to political, economic and social success. â€Å"Economic, social, and political development requires autonomy and creativity as well as an effective, interventionist government staffed by a highly qualified and dedicated civil service. Singapore has come closer to achieving this mix than most other third World countries. There is much that other developing countries could adopt from the Singapore experience† (Bellows, 1985). How to cite The Social Organization of Singapore, Essay examples

Drama and Plays free essay sample

Theater in the Philippines is as varied as the cultural traditions and the historical influences that shaped it through the centuries. The dramatic forms that flourished and continue to flourish among the different peoples of the archipelago include: the indigenous theater, mainly Malay in character, which is seen in rituals, mimetic dances, and mimetic customs; the plays with Spanish influence, among which are the komedya, the sinakulo, the playlets, the sarswela, and the drama; and the theater with Anglo-American influence, which encompasses bodabil and the plays in English, and the modern or original plays by Fihpinos, which employ representational and presentational styles drawn from contemporary modern theater, or revitalize traditional forms from within or outside the country. The Indigenous Theater The rituals, dances, and customs which are still performed with urgency and vitality by the different cultural communities that comprise about five percent of the country’s population are held or performed, together or separately, on the occasions of a person’s birth, baptism, circumcision, initial menstruation, courtship, wedding, sickness, and death; or for the celebration of tribal activities, like hunting, fishing, rice planting and harvesting, and going to war. In most rituals, a native priest/priestess, variously called mandadawak, catalonan, bayok, or babalyan, goes into a trance as the spirit he/she is calling upon possesses him/her. While entranced, the shaman partakes of the sacrificial offering, which may be a chicken, a pig, a carabao (depending on the gravity of the spirit’s anger) or simply rice uncooked or in cakes, rice wine, and betel nut. This act, which represents the death of the supplicant at the hands of the spirit, adapts itself to the occasion for which the ritual is held. Among the Tagbanua of Palawan in southern Philippines, the ritual of the diwata, which crowns a series of activities addressed to the spirits of ancestors, is held after the rice harvest on the last three days of the last moon, to ask the supreme deity Mangindusa, the other gods, and the spirits of ancestors for a bountiful harvest and for the well-being of the supplicants. For this most significant socioeconomic and religious event, the interior of the home of the babalyan is decorated with stripped palm leaves and bamboo slats with Tagbanua writing and designs. In the center of the large room, the ritual offerings are carefully arranged: a small wooden boat hanging from the ceiling (on this the ancestors â€Å"ride†); a mat on which are spread the bowls or plates of uncooked rice, jewelry, betel nuts, rice cakes (which are later consumed by the people), ginger, onions; a ritual bamboo swing which the babalyan rides or chants on; a stool on which are arranged more food offerings; and the all-important wine jars set in a line in front of the swing and provided with oil-rubbed straws through which the spirits will sip the rice wine (wine is not found in the spirit world so it is the one item that best attracts spirits to the celebration). To the heady music of gongs and drums, the babalyan’s assistant, dressed in a sarong skirt, tight blouse, and sash from which the wavy long knife called karis hangs, opens the ritual by performing several dances and shaking in both hands the ugsang (stripped palm leaves) with bells, in honor of Mangindusa who is supposed to be perched on the roof of the house. This part ends with the babalyan letting out a scream and pulling the ceremonial staff attached to the ceiling to denote that Mangindusa has departed. Soon after, the babalyan herself, also in a similar skirt and blouse, but with a black hood covering her face, works herself into a trance, as she sips wine and swings herself in the middle of the room. Then she dances, balancing on her head a bowl with rice or a bowl with candles or a karis, while brandishing the palm leaves or two porcelain bowls or a piece of cloth in her two hands, as she is followed by an assistant. To the continued beating of the gongs, the babalyan may then shake the palm leaves violently and strike the sides of the wine jar angrily and sip wine, denoting that a spirit has come down. As other spirits take turns possessing her, the babalyan’s movements may change—one spirit may prompt her to sip wine or softdrinks or water; another may want to smoke cigarettes with those participating in the ritual; others may dance with a long knife or bolo on their heads; or oil the women’s hair; or lead the singing of the spirit song. The series of possessions is capped with those present drinking and smoking and participating in the activities of the ritual (Fox 1982). Interestingly, these animistic rituals survive today even among Christianized Filipinos. In Isabela, the atang-atang ritual of the Ibanag features a gaily decorated small bamboo raft with offerings of rice, oil, eggs, cigarettes, rice cakes, and a little chick representing the soul of the sick person. Around this raft situated on the ground, two women dance, drink, and chant Christian prayers to cure the sick. Later, the women take oil from the raft and rub it on the face, legs or hands of the sick. Aside from rituals, tribal dances which were more often than not mimetic may also be considered as proto-dramas. A majority of these dances, which mark important events like baptism, courtship, marriage and even death, depict important tribal activities. The tribes of the Cordillera have dances that reenact the hunt for and the killing of a boar, as well as the practice and ways of headtaking; the Aeta of Zambales perform dances which show the techniques of gathering wild honey in the forest as well as hunting for fish; the Tausug of Sulu boast of dances that represent how oranges are picked or how not to catch a mudfish. The most important dance, however, among most Philippine tribes is the war dance. The war dance of the Mansaka of Davao del Norte imitates the movements of model warriors called bagani, as the latter fight with spears, bolo, and shields. Other tribal dances which may be considered proto-dramas as well are the dances which are playful imitations of animal movements, like the monkey, fish, and fly dances of the Aeta of Zambales in Luzon; the hawk dances of the Higaonon in Mindanao; and the butterfly, monkey, and bird dances of the Tausug and Sama in Sulu. Mimetic too are some of the customs associated with courtship, marriage, and death among the ethnic communities. Of the courtship customs, the most common is the debate between a male and a female, which may employ verse, song, and dance. The Maranao panonoroon has a boy and a girl chanting metaphorical verses to each other, with the boy offering his love to the girl and the latter warding off his verbal advances. The Cebuano balitaw features antiphonal songs performed by male and female, which talks not only of love, but of the problems of married couples and rural workers. Among the Tagalog, the debate in song and dance becomes an exchange of spoken verses in the duplo, where poets called bilyako use proverbs, riddles, the pasyon, and the awit as well as contemporary events to advance their suits to the bilyaka of their choice. In the 1920s, the duplo became a formal debate on an issue, and was called the balagtasan. Mimetic customs related to weddings include: the Tagalog pamanhikan, where representatives of the families of both the boy and the girl speak in metaphorical language to settle the dowry or bridal price; and the Bilaan samsung, where, after the bride-price is paid, the bride and the groom are â€Å"forced† to sit beside each other, and their hair â€Å"tied together† even if the bride â€Å"objects. † Finally, mimetic customs related to death are, exemplified by the baraning usa of the Aeta of Camarines, where a deer made of banana stalk and twigs â€Å"hunted down† and offered to the dead to take to the next life. As a whole, indigenous dramas are well integrated into the lives of tribal Filipinos. These rituals, dances, and customs express their very beliefs and depict their activities and material culture. Furthermore, they help fulfill the basic needs of the tribe for a good harvest and victory in war, as well as the physical and spiritual well-being of the sick, the newly born, the youth, and the newly wed members of the tribe. Finally, these plays bind the members of the tribe in a stronger bond for the common good. Rituals of baptism, circumcision, marriage, as well as the dances that instruct children on the techniques of looking for honey or fishing or fighting in war, clearly work for the collective good. A good harvest and plentiful honey and fish obviously benefit the tribe, while the display of war dances teaches the young boys the primary duty of manhood, namely, fighting to ensure survival of the tribe against all aggressors. Similarly, the customs associated with courtship, marriage, and death provide a way of expressing personal emotions in a socially accepted way, and of informing all of bonds that will have to be respected by everyone, so that harmony may reign in society. The Spanish Colonial Tradition In the three centuries of Spanish rule from 1565 to 1898, the Spanish colonizers, specifically the friars, showed a keen awareness of the power of theater both as a tool for the Christianization of the natives and as a magnet to attract the latter to the pueblo or town which constituted the foundation of Spain’s empire in the archipelago. Consequently, the Spanish regime gave rise to and popularized the various types of secular and religious plays, the former usually staged to celebrate town fiestas, and the latter, to highlight important Catholic liturgical feasts or seasons like Christmas, Lent, or Easter. Many of these plays and playlets continue to be popular among the Christianized folk who live in the rural areas and compose the majority of the total population. Of the plays, the most important is the komedya, also known as moro-moro, linambay, arakyo, which is a play in verse introduced into the country from Spain in the 16th century and institutionalized in the 19th century. This theatrical spectacle takes from 3 to 15 hours and several sessions to perform. It has two principal types: the secular, which concentrates on epic stories of love and vengeance; and the religious, which narrates the lives of patron saints. Elaborate marches, lengthy choreographed fighting between individuals and/or armies, and magical artifices wrought by heaven to save saints or Christians in distress ensure the popularity of the komedya as principal entertainment during town fiestas. Deriving stories from native versions of European metrical romances, the orihinal (script) of the secular komedya usually depicts the conflict between Christian princes and princesses and their Moorish counterparts. Typical of the stories of the secular komedya is the arakyo still performed in several towns of Nueva Ecija, which revolves around the search by Elena and Constantino for the Cross of Christ and the obstacles they encounter in that search. As performed in Penaranda, Nueva Ecija in 1987, the story of the arakyo remains basically what it was at the turn of the century when this play, also known as tibag, first became popular. After his father, King Constancio of Rome and Constantipole, is killed by the Turks, the young Constantino sits on the throne and brings war to the Emperador of Turquia to avenge his father’s death. Worried about the outcome of the war, Elena is assured by a voice from heaven that victory would be given to Constantino, but that he and Elena should in turn look for the cross on which Christ died. Constantino wins the war and kills the Emperador of Turquia. Meanwhile, Queen Elena has left for the Holy Land to look for the Redeemer’s cross. Princess Ordelisa of Turquia now bids farewell to her father, Emperador Costroas, and leads a mission to the Christian court. She demands Constantino’s surrender and exacts vengeance on Constantino’s general, Lucero (with whom she is secretly in love), who with his companions made trouble when they joined the tournament in Turquia some years back. Meanwhile, Queen Elena has found the cross, but loses it to the Moors who intercept and attack her. Informed of this, Constantino sends Lucero on a mission to Turquia to demand that Costroas give back the cross. The mission fails to retrieve the cross, but it brings Lucero face to face with Ordelisa once again. The general pledges his undying love for the Moorish princess and proves it by laying down his arms. But the other Moors pounce on, imprison, and sentence him to death by beheading. Ordelisa, who is now convinced of Lucero’s love, decides to free him. In the end, a big battle is waged between the Christians led by Constantino and Elena, and the Moors under Costroas and Ordelisa. Elena is about to kill Ordelisa when Lucero intervenes and begs for her life. Defeated, the Moors agree to be baptized â€Å"so that the dirt of their souls may be washed away. † Traditional are the arakyo’s sets and costumes, its stylized gestures and rhetorical delivery of verses, its marcha (slow march) and paso doble (fast march), accompanied by band music, as well as its scenes of love between Moorish princess and Christian general, of the embahada (mission) between kingdoms, of dances to relieve long stretches of monotonous dialogue, of theatrical artifices. Supported by hermanos mayores (sponsors) and by donations from individuals, the arakyo, like many traditional komedya today, is cherished by the townspeople as a form of dance-prayer or an extended dramatic devotional to the Santa Cruz so that it may shower favors and blessings on both kin and community. Not as entertaining as the secular komedya, the religious komedya called komedya de santo, hardly survives to our day. Typical of these didactic komedya which were used by Spanish friars to teach Christianity and inculcate Christian colonial values is one still staged in Iligan City—the Comedia de San Miguel (Play of San Miguel), written circa 1890. Also called Yawa-Yawa (literally, Devil-Devil), this komedya tells the story of how Lusbel rebelled against God, and how God, through the Seraphim, ordered San Miguel Arcangel (Iligan City’s patron saint) to quell the heavenly revolts and drive Lusbel, his cohorts and the Seven Capital Sins represented by a huge sevenheaded monster, to hell where they are punished forever for their pride and rebelliousness. Of the Philippine religious plays, the most outstanding and enduring has been the sinakulo — also known as the pasion y muerte (passion and death), tanggal (literally, to remove) or centurion— which probably saw light in the mid-18th century. Staged commercially or as community activity during Lent and often for eight consecutive nights during Holy Week, the sinakulo started as the dramatization of the Pasyong Genesis, the most popular verse narrative on the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ, and later augmented by apocryphal stories from other pasyon and religious books like the Martir sa Golgota (The Martyr of Golgotha) and popular reading materials like Liwayway. In Tambo, Buhi, Camarines Sur, the passion play known as tanggal is a folk interpretation of events of the passion that is distinguished both by its charm and naivete as by its faith and fervor. For almost three whole days and with financial support from the barrio, older members of an itinerant group of tanggalista (members of the tanggal group) chant the Bicol pasyon and other episodes from the Creation of the World to the Search for the Holy Cross by Elena and Constantino, while the younger members of the group dramatize the actions narrated by the chant. Most popular are the following: doleful scenes like Christ saying farewell to his mother before he goes to his martyrdom; comic scenes featuring the antics of Judas Iscariot, the great comedian in any passion play; scenes of spectacle like the storm at sea where the Apostles take a little boat ride on Lake Buhi (sometimes with an escort of carabaos); colorful scenes like the descent of the Holy Spirit on Mary and the Apostles; and finally, dramatic scenes like the Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin in heaven. In urbanized towns like Cainta, Rizal, the sinakulo has reached heights of technical sophistication in terms of sets which are more â€Å"realistic,† costumes which are more historically accurate, dialogue which approaches colloquial prose, and lighting which produces effects of night and day, darkness and lightning. In spite of all these, the sinakulo’s world view, whether in Buhi or Cainta, and like those of other religious plays, remains as simple as that of a medieval morality play where absolute and certain is the victory of good over all forces of evil. As popular but more numerous than the komedya and sinakulo are the playlets, which attest to the importance placed by the Spanish friars and the local priests after them on teaching Catholicism. Many religious playlets in the Philippines merely embellish the Catholic liturgy or dramatize more fully the feasts narrated by that liturgy, especially the events of Christ’s birth, passion, death, and resurrection. Others are performed to honor saints on their feast days. Some of the most important playlets are associated with the Christmas season. The Tagalog panunuluyan (seeking entry) and Bicol kagharong (going from house to house) dramatize through a street procession the search by the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph for an inn in Bethlehem on Christmas eve. The pastores (shepherds) may be a playlet depicting the journey of the shepherds, their encounter with Satan, and their adoration of the Christ Child, as may be seen in Cebu and Leyte; or simply a group of males and females in colorful costumes dancing and singing Spanish and native Christmas songs in front of different houses, as practiced in certain towns of Bicol. The ninos inocentes found in the Tagalog areas, may be a short play showing the beheading of babies below two years of age as ordered by Herod, as was the custom in some towns of Rizal; or a parade of higante (giants) as in Gasan, Marinduque. Lastly, the tatlong hari (three kings) may be a simple procession highlighting three males costumed as kings, as in Floridablanca, Pampanga, and Mabitac, Laguna, or a short play reenacting episodes in the search for and adoration of the Infant Jesus by the Three Kings, as in Gasan, Marinduque. The Lenten season, specifically the Holy Week, has many more playlets associated with it. The osana (hosanna) found in almost all Christian areas, features the blessing of the palms and reenacts Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday. The via crucis (way of the cross), observed in most Catholic parishes, is a procession of the image of the Nazareno or Christ carrying the cross, which meditates at 14 altars where the Stations of the Cross are enshrined. In Paete, Laguna, the stations on the meeting of Christ and his mother, and Christ and Veronica are dramatized with chanted dialogue and moving images. The paghuhugas (washing), performed in almost all Catholic and Aglipayan churches, dramatizes the washing of the feet of the Apostles by Jesus on Maundy Thursday. The huling hapunan or ultima cena (last supper), staged in some Tagalog and Bicol provinces, reenacts the Last Supper in an actual dinner eaten by the priest and 12 men playing the apostles. The siete palabras (seven words) observed in many Catholic parishes features a lifesize image of Christ hanging on the cross, which moves its head each time one of the seven last words is spoken (with accompanying â€Å"thunder and lightning†) during the three hours before Christ’s death at 3 P. M. on Good Friday. The soledad (solitude), still done in Bicol and Pangasinan, is a procession of the image of the grieving Mater Dolorosa after the â€Å"burial† of her son on Good Friday or Black Saturday. This stops at designated houses where songs are performed to lighten Mary’s sorrow. The pagkabuhay (resurrection) of Lubao, Pampanga, reenacts with special effects the Resurrection of Christ in the early hours of Easter Sunday. The salubong (meeting), also known as sugat, encuentro, sabet, Alleluya, and padafung in Catholic and Aglipayan parishes all over the country, dramatizes the meeting of the Risen Christ and the Virgin on Easter Sunday morning in dance and song. This is climaxed by the removal of the Virgin’s black veil by a little angel, who descends from the â€Å"heaven† of the four-posted galilea to sing â€Å"Regina Coeli, Laetare† (Queen of Heaven, Rejoice). The hudas, found in Pampanga and Bulacan towns, shows the burning of the effigy of the traitor Iscariot. The moriones (helmets) of the Marinduque parishes dramatizes the story of the Roman soldier, Longino, who while guarding the tomb of Christ witnesses the Resurrection, becomes a Christian, proclaims Christ’s divinity, and is beheaded by Pilate’s soldiers. The major genre of playlets performed in honor of patron saints is the moros y cristianos popular in Manila and many towns all over the archipelago in the 19th century. Today, this dance drama survives in a few isolated towns. Known by different appellations, these playlets still dramatize the conflict between Christians and Moors/non-Christians. Notable examples of this genre are the kinabayo of Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte, which depicts the conflict of the Moors and Christians in the Battle of Covadonga; the palo-palo of Ivana, Batanes, which survives as a dance with sticks between Moors and Christians; and the sayaw of Ibajay, Aklan, which underscores the defeat of the Moors in the hands of the Bisaya. A form of moros y cristianos, too, is the bakahan (battle) of San Antonio, Laguna, which reenacts the fight between San Miguel Arcangel and the Hudyo (Jews) on Good Friday. The secular and religious plays and playlets are drastically different in content and function from the indigenous plays. While the latter depict the life and activities of the tribe, the dramas with Spanish influence either showcase alien stories of princes and princesses from ideal worlds peopled by the â€Å"beautiful† white race or narrate the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ and the saints of the Catholic Church, which were introduced into the country by the Spanish friars. Moreover, the komedya propagated and continues to propagate a colonial mentality that looks up to the European as superior in race and religion, even as the plays and playlets on the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ and the saints discourage selfinitiative, a critical attitude, and decisiveness, preferring to forge a passive will that bows to autocracy and its hierarchy of authority. It is not difficult to see how these plays contributed to the shaping of the native Filipino as colonial during the Spanish period and how they continue to discourage the development of persons and citizens in contemporary Philippine so ciety. Introduced into the country by Spanish artists in 1878 or 1879, the sarswela had its heyday from 1900 to 1940 in Manila and the provinces. Original sarswela were created in Tagalog by writers like Severino Reyes, Hermogenes Ilagan, Patricio Mariano, Julian Cruz Balmaseda, Servando de los Angeles, and composers like Fulgencio Tolentino, Juan S. Hernandez, Leon Ignacio, Alejo Carluen, and Bonifacio Abdon; in Cebu, by writers like Vicente Sotto, Buenaventura Rodriguez, Piux Kabahar, and Fernando Buyser; in Pampanga, by writers like Juan Crisostomo Soto, Aurelio V. Tolentino, Felix Galura, and Urbano Macapagal; in Bicol, by writers like Asisclo Jimenez, Jose Figueroa, and Valerio Zuniga; in Iloilo, by writers like Valente Cristobal, Jimeno Damaso, Angel Magahum, and Jose Ma. Ingalla; in the Ilocos, by writers like Mena Pecson Crisologo, Mariano Gaerlan, Leon Pichay, Isaias Lazo, and Barbaro Paat; and in Pangasinan, by writers like Catalino Palisoc and Pablo Mejia. Usually in three acts with music and dancing interspersed within the prose dialogue, the sarswela focuses on a love story between members of the upper classes, which is spiced up with comic love episodes between servants, and made more relevant with satirical attacks on usurers, corrupt politicians, oppressive landlords, lazy husbands whose husbandry is wasted on cockfighting and other vices and, lately, students hooked on drugs and â€Å"Saudi† recruiters who take advantage of naive workers. One of the most popular sarswela of all time is Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden), 1919, which tells of the love between a pretty young flower girl, Angelita, and a young handsome law student, Cipriano. Principal obstacle to their love is a rich old man, Don Silvestre, who frequents the kabaret where the dalagang bukid sells flowers, determined to get the girl for himself. Taking advantage of their addiction to cockfighting and cardgames, Don Silvestre lends Angelita’s parents all the gambling money they want, certain that they would then easily agree to deliver the girl to him as payment for their debts. Moreover, Don Silvestre uses his money to make sure that Angelita wins the beauty contest that means so much to Angelita’s parents. In the end, after a series of romantic misunderstandings and comic misinterpretations, Angelita is crowned queen, but sidesteps Don Silvestre’s trap by eloping with Cipriano, who has just finished his law studies. The traditional sarswela now survives only in the Ilocos, from where about half a dozen commercial troupes fan out to other Ilocano-speaking provinces for performances during town fiestas. In Bantay, llocos Sur, veteran sarswelista Barbaro Paat continues to put up his sarswela in May. Typical of Paat’s stories is one which depicts the plight of a wife, who has been sent away by her husband and mother-in-law, and the sufferings of their young daughter under the father’s new wife. Although its costumes are contemporary, Paat’s sarswela has all the ingredients of popular traditional sarswela—namely, the love songs, the scenes of melodrama, and, most of all, the comic scenes which the audience loves above all. Introduced from Spain in the 19th century, the drama (to be distinguished from the generic English term â€Å"drama†) is a play in verse and/or prose and usually in one act. As written by Filipinos at the turn of the century, it often revolves on an aspect of Filipino contemporary life, e. g. divorce, gambling, and other social vices, usually in the framework of a love story. During its golden age from 1900 to 1940, the drama was performed in a series of three-in-one performance, or by itself before a sarswela. Like the sarswela, it could be presented commercially or as a community activity, on a proscenium stage in a teatro or on an open-air rural entablado, using telon (theater curtain or backdrop) and appropriate props to denote setting. Although the drama is hardly ever staged today, it still enjoys immense popularity on radio, television or film, either as tear-jerking, sala-set melodrama popularly known as soap opera, or as comedies with a lot of slapstick or toilet humor. The drama as a Philippine form could be one of three types, depending on its emphasis: melodrama, comedy, or drama simboliko. The pre-World War II melodrama which aims to make people cry is typified by Veronidia, 1919, by Cirio H. Panganiban, which depicts the tragic death of a divorcee who only wants to visit her dying (first) husband. The comedy which entertains with laughter is exemplified by Julian Cruz Balmaseda’s Sino Ba Kayo? (Who Are You? ), 1943, which weaves its hilarious situations around the mistaken identities of the main characters—a widower and his pretty daughter, a widow (the widower’s new wife) and her handsome son (who turns out to be the boyfriend of the widower’s daughter), the male and female servants. The drama simboliko (allegorical drama), popular in Manila and environs from 1898 to 1910 as a vehicle of political protest, is exemplified by Juan Abad ’s Tanikalang Guinto (Golden Chain), 1902, and Aurelio V. Tolentino’s Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow), 1903. Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas chronicles the struggle of the Filipinos, here represented by Inangbayan (Mother Country), under the leadership of Taga-ilog (patriotic Filipino) to overcome the oppressors in the country’s history: the Chinese, the Spanish, and the Americans. Act I opens with Inangbayan reprimanding Asalhayop (Filipino collaborators) and his friends for feasting on the tombs of those who perished when Balintawak fell to the Chinese. Taga-ilog exhorts everyone to rise against Haring Bata, the Chinese King. For a fee, Asalhayop informs Haring Bata of the planned revolt, but is exposed by Inangbayan and burned alive by Taga-ilog for his treachery. The Filipinos launch the revolt against the Chinese and win a signal victory. But another power comes to the Islands, represented by Dilatnabulag (Spain) and Matanglawin (Spanish colonial government), who make a blood compact with Taga-ilog. In Act II the Halimau (Spanish friar) strips the natives of their little wealth. Taga-ilog defies him and is imprisoned. Ignoring Matanglawin’s orders to release Taga-ilog, Halimau forces Inangbayan to surrender all her riches in exchange for Taga-ilog’s freedom. Dahumpalay (Filipino collaborator) wants Taga-ilog shot, but instead is killed by Taga-ilog, who burns the traitor’s face and uses his clothes to escape from prison. Halimau orders Inangbayan buried alive, but the latter is liberated by the forces of Taga-ilog who finally overthrow the Spanish colonizers, even as the third colonial power, represented by Bagonsibol (America) and Malaynatin (the American insular government) arrive to pledge friendship with the Filipinos. Act III opens with women sewing the Philippine flag which will be raised when the new moon rises. Taga-ilog persuades Malaynatin to give the Filipinos their independence, but the latter is reluctant to do so. Malaynatin then falls asleep and in a dream sees Taga-ilog and his army preparing to fight America with cannons, air ships, and tanklike vehicles. In the end, Inangbayan begs for the country’s independence but is refused. But when young children kneel before Bagonsibol in support of Inangbayan, Bagonsibol’s heart softens and he grants the people freedom. In general, the drama and the sarswela represent a significant development in Philippine theater history, if only because they pioneered in a more realistic portrayal of Filipino life and culture, showcasing not only Filipino costumes and sets, but typical Filipino characters, dialogue, and situations as well. Moreover, unlike the colonial plays, these forms trained their sights on current issues of Philippine society, launching diatribes against those they perceived as social â€Å"offenders. † If these plays can be faulted, it would be for the simplistic way in which they solve the very real problems they present. Coincidences, accidents, and other dei ex machina are used to eliminate all obstacles and to come to a correct (not necessarily happy) ending for all concerned. By a stroke of the pen, the villains all mend their evil ways and become model members of the establishment church and community. The â€Å"seditious† dramas, however, are an exception because they dared to paint the bloody struggle of Filipinos against the American colonizers, hoping thus to enlighten and exhort the Filipino masses to support the revolutionary movement based in the mountains, and thus prevent colonization by another Western power. The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions Short as it was, the American colonial regime from 1901 to 1946 had a profound effect on 20th century Philippine theater, first in form and later in philosophy. This influence is seen in the Philippine bodabil (vaudeville), the Western plays presented in English or in Filipino translation/adapatation, and the original modern plays written by contemporary playwrights. Introduced in the 1920s from the United States, bodabil is not a play per se, but a potpourri of songs, dances, and comedy skits which showcase what is popular in the United States. As may be expected, the Filipinos who perform in bodabil cannot help but imitate, and naturally end up as the â€Å"local versions† of the American â€Å"originals. † During the Japanese Occupation, the bodabil began to include a short melodrama at the end, to accommodate the popular prewar film actors and actresses who could no longer appear in films since the Japanese had confiscated all film equipment. This expanded bodabil, which reigned supreme